Sodiq Fakorede, Ke Liao, KathleenMae Rogers, Kai Cheng, Lydia Pemberton, Laura E. Martin, Hannes Devos
Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) research systematically excludes participants with textured hair, limiting generalizability. While inclusive hardware offers a solution, it remains unvalidated in dynamic settings. This study bridges this ecological gap by determining if equitable data quality is achievable across racial groups during a complex Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) paradigm. We recruited 17 older adults from racially and ethnically underrepresented groups (REUG) and 17 age-and-sex-matched White older adults.
Introduction
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a widely used method in cognitive neuroscience for understanding both typical and atypical brain function. Compared to other neurophysiological techniques, EEG possesses several unique strengths, including its ability to measure neural activity with unparalleled temporal resolution [1,2]. Furthermore, EEG is noninvasive, highly tolerable, and cost-effective, which makes it exceptionally well-suited for a wide range of clinical applications and lifespan developmental research [1].
Materials and methods
Participants
Participants were recruited from March 2023 to July 2024 through social media campaigns and personal referrals. To qualify, participants had to: (1) be between 18 and 65 years of age; (2) score at least 26 on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA); (3) be able to stand independently for at least two minutes; and (4) follow basic instructions in English. Exclusion criteria included: (1) neurological or musculoskeletal disorders impacting balance; (2) reported cognitive decline or a formal diagnosis of cognitive impairment; and (3) uncorrected hearing loss.
Results
Participants
Participant characteristics are summarized in Table 1. The White and REUG participant groups were well-matched on all demographic and clinical variables. There were no significant group differences in age (p = 0.87), MoCA scores (p = 1.00), or years of education (p = 0.29). Additionally, the distribution of sexes was identical between the two groups (p = 1.00).
Discussion
The primary aim of this study was to determine whether MOBI through an EEG paradigm could produce equitable data quality between White and REUG adults during a cognitive task in sitting and standing. Our principal finding demonstrates that data quality of the ERP, as measured by SME, was comparable across racial groups.
Conclusion
This study provides the first empirical evidence that equitable EEG data quality can be achieved across racial groups during an active MoBI paradigm. By adopting a deliberate socio-technical approach, combining culturally sensitive protocols with purpose-built, dry-electrode hardware, we successfully bridged the data-quality gap that has long hindered the inclusive application of EEG research.
Citation: Fakorede S, Liao K, Rogers K, Cheng K, Pemberton L, Martin LE, et al. (2026) Inclusive mobile brain-body imaging achieves equivalent EEG data quality across racial groups. PLOS Digit Health 5(8): e0001638. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0001638
Editor: Mengyu Wang, Harvard University, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Received: January 22, 2026; Accepted: July 17, 2026; Published: August 7, 2026
Copyright: © 2026 Fakorede et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting information files.
Funding: Financial support for this project was provided by multiple awards. S.F. was funded by the School of Health Professions PhD Student Research Award. L.P. was supported by the T32 Kansas University Training Program in Neurological and Rehabilitation Sciences (Award 5T32HD057850‑15). Further support was received from the Theo and Alfred M. Landon Center on Aging Pilot Proposal Program (Grant 7K07AG060266) and the KU Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, funded by the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (Award P30 AG072973). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
